Shajar al-Durr: A Woman's Legacy in Medieval Egypt and the Islamic World

Abstract

    Shajar al-Durr, or also known as Shajarat al-Durr, is one of the few women who were dynastic rulers in the entire history of the Islamic world. As for the history of Egypt, Shajar al-Durr was only the second woman to ever become a ruler in the region, with Cleopatra being the very first female ruler hundreds of years before al-Durr's ascension to the Egyptian throne. Shajar al-Durr witnessed and became a part of the transfer of power between two ruling dynasties in Egypt. The Mamluks would replace the former Ayyubid dynasty that was once led by the famous Muslim sultan Saladin during the crusades. She would also witness and become involved in the seventh crusade led by French king Louis IX. Despite her tragic death, she would leave a remarkable legacy that many remember to this day. Many describe her as resilient, as she steadily moved through the ranks from slave to the sultana of Egypt. Part of her legacy remains in the surviving mausoleum that she patronized for herself, which represents a very unique case in the arts and architecture of the Islamic world. Located in Cairo, Egypt, her mausoleum carries great artistic and historical significance.

Historical Context / Introduction to Shajar al-Durr's Mausoleum

(Figure 1) Mamluk Sultanate/Dynasty circa late 13th century. After the defeat of the Seventh Crusade, the Mamluks would replace the Ayyubids as new rulers of Egypt.

    Shajar al-Durr is one of the most influential women in the history of the Islamic world. A common-born woman of either Armenian or Turkic descent (Mamluk origin), she was a slave before rising to prominence as the wife of the last Ayyubid ruler of Egypt, al-Salih Ayyub II, and later as the wife of the first Mamluk sultan of Egypt, al-Din Aybak, who was a Mamluk soldier under the Ayyubids. Believed to be born in the region of modern-day Armenia, either of Turkish or Kipchak origin, Shajar al-Durr was a Mamluk (slave) during her youth just as many other men and women who would eventually come to dominate Egypt and help establish the Mamluk dynasty through military and popular support, replacing the Ayyubid dynasty in the process. Unlike the historical case in the west, slaves, at least in the context of Islamic history, were able to climb the social ranks and become slightly more involved in society. As for the Mamluks, women were reserved as wives, concubines, and female servants, while the men were recruited in the armies of the Fatimids and the Ayyubids. These Mamluk-dominated armies would help them repel the Crusaders and the Mongols. Shajar al-Durr was purchased by al-Salih Ayyub II, the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. She eventually gave birth to a son after accompanying him to Egypt and soon the two were married. During the Seventh Crusade that was led by King Louis IX of France (which intended to capture Egypt for the French for the planned subsequent capture of Jerusalem), al-Salih Ayyub became gravely ill, yet attempted to organize a defense against the Crusaders at Damietta (central Nile Delta).

(Figure 2) A medieval illustration depicting King Louis IX of France departing for the Seventh Crusade towards Egypt.

(Figure 3) A Neoclassical European painting depicting the crusaders' siege of Damietta, Egypt, which was the first confrontation of the Seventh Crusade. The crusaders were in fact forced to abandon their large ships and land in Egypt across shallow waters by foot towards the fortifications of Damietta that were run by the Ayyubid troops, who were led by sultan al-Salih Ayyub II.

On November 22, 1249, al-Salih Ayyub died of his illness after a ten-year reign over Egypt. Shajar al-Durr informed the commander of the Egyptian army and the chief eunuch of the Ayyubid palace about the sultan's death. The three of them agreed to keep the tragedy a secret. They found a servant who could forge the dead sultan's handwriting and issued decrees in his name. This kept military morale high during the crusade. After the crusaders were defeated along with the capture of King Louis IX of France, the sultan's death was publicized. This clearly left a power vacuum that Shajar al-Durr and her stepson, al-Muazzam Turanshah, had filled during and after the crusade which they both defeated. Yet for a brief moment before the arrival of Turanshah, Shajar al-Durr was the sole ruler of Egypt during a very crucial period after realizing the death of her husband, the last Ayyubid sultan al-Salih Ayyub.

(Figure 4) An illustration depicting the capture of King Louis IX after the crusaders were formally defeated by the combined Muslim forces of the Ayyubids and the Mamluks. In the wake of this defeat, the reign of Shajar al-Durr would mark the dawn of Mamluk rule in Egypt.

Turanshah tried to consolidate as much power as possible, even attempting to oust Shajar al-Durr from any positions of power to solidify himself as the sole ruler of Egypt. Such political undertakings created tensions that developed into a murder plot by Mamluk military officers, with men like Baibars at the forefront, who succeeded in assassinating Turanshah. The Mamluks gained political/dynastic power and representation through military means. The Mamluks also formally recognized Shajar al-Durr as the new Egyptian ruler, kickstarting Mamluk rule. Once again, Shajar al-Durr was the sole ruler of the former Ayyubid realm with the strong support of the Mamluk-dominated military - this time in her own name (sultana of Egypt). The Abbassid caliph, the overlord of Egypt, refused to support her rule, leading the Mamluks to support Aybak to ascend the Egyptian throne with Shajar al-Durr as his wife. Although she was technically the sultana, she continued to exercise power "from behind the sultan's throne." Despite her very short solo reign, coins were minted with her name, which was also mentioned during Friday prayers, indicating her legitimacy over the Egyptian sultanate.

(Figure 5) Coins minted during the solo reign of Shajar al-Durr, which marked her name.

    Though Shajar al-Durr's solo reign was short (only three months), she expelled the Crusaders from Egypt and helped establish a new Egyptian dynasty. The Mamluk sultanate would last from 1250 until 1517 when the Ottomans succeeded in their conquest of Egypt. Shajar al-Durr held onto power as sultana and wife of the sultan for about seven more years, when she "signed all royal degrees, dispensed justice, and issued commands"(Verde), which truly exemplified her influence and power. After controversial power conflicts between Shajar al-Durr and her husband that escalated into the death of Aybak himself, her political faction was defeated and she was beaten to death in her own palace in 1257. She was buried in a royal tomb, known today as the Mausoleum of Shajar al-Durr, which reflects the kind of power and patronage that she held during her life as sultana of Egypt.

(Figure 6) Exterior of Shajar al-Durr's Mausoleum / Tomb Chamber

    Because Shajar al-Durr is known as one of the very few women who held dynastic rule in their own name in the entire history of the Islamic world, her mausoleum, or royal tomb, demonstrates a unique case in artistic and architectural patronage within the Islamic world. Although not much survives from her tomb complex today except the actual tomb chamber, the former establishment of this site contributed to her assertion and legitimization of power as sultana during the rise of a new dynasty in Egypt. It continues to serve as a way for her to leave a memorable and unique dynastic legacy within the history of Egypt and the Islamic world. As D. Fairchild Ruggles mentioned in his journal article, "the tomb serves the occupant in that it commemorates him or her forever, and it serves the descendants by celebrating the dynastic line that gives them political legitimacy"(Ruggles, 90). This was especially crucial considering how: Shajar al-Durr was a woman taking on the role of a conventional and typical male sultan, and the Mamluk dynasty had just begun to establish its place, power, and legitimacy in former Ayyubid Egypt after the deaths of al-Salih Ayyub II and Turanshah. As many know "according to the traditions of the Islamic state, sultans conventionally displayed their power in numismatic and architectural modes"(Wolf, 199). Many rulers (notably men) across the Islamic world would intend to accomplish the same idea in mind as Shajar al-Durr when they commissioned their own royal tombs, congregational mosques, caravanserais, madrasas (schools), and palace complexes that had semi-public access. Yet, Shajar al-Durr's mausoleum was more than just demonstrating her power, piety, and legitimacy as part of the larger Mamluk dynasty that would continue to do so through future descendants. While Shajar al-Durr's mausoleum exemplifies how artistic and architectural patronage was based on traditions of illustrating power and authority, piety, and even political legitimacy within the ruling dynasty, it also broke barriers and brought "innovative gendered dimensions"(Wolf, 199) into Egyptian architecture by including traditions found in the patronage of female nobility common in the Islamic world to promote and further illustrate her rightful rule as the first sultana of Egypt and the very first leader of the rising Mamluk dynasty/sultanate.

A Look into the Artistic and Architectural Style of the Mausoleum

    Shajar al-Durr's mausoleum is located along the outskirts of Cairo in the cemetery complex of Sayyida Nafisa. The architectural ground plan is based on the same one that is also applied on many popular pilgrimage sites of the time, such as the tombs of female Muslim saints. However, the mausoleum itself was based on a rather irregular ground plan due to a shortage of space and overcrowded buildings in Cairo, according to Archnet.org. This problem caused by narrow streets and overcrowded buildings that creates a somewhat "distorted" view and "visual impact" continues to this day, since the Fatimids and Ayyubids had already erected so many structures before the Mamluks. Yet, the implementation "of recessed entrances, domes, and projecting corners which have a cumulative effect of a staggered facade"(Archnet.org) makes up for this sense of distortion and overcrowding when facing the exterior of the mausoleum, including the facade and the entrances.

(Figure 7) General ground plan of the mausoleum.

    At the time of its opening, the royal tomb complex included a public mosque, a minaret, a fountain, al-Durr's private palace, a garden, and even baths, all of which surrounded the main centerpiece of the site: the tomb chamber. All that survives today is in fact the mausoleum. There have been modifications over time, such as a second mosque that was added by the Ottomans in the 19th century. According to the American Research Center in Egypt, there have been several conservation projects in recent times, but it is unfortunate to see that the mausoleum still remains in a damaged and rather neglected state. What remains of the interior and exterior of the mausoleum is still visible for historical analysis. For instance, the integration of a public mosque emphasized the piety of al-Durr and helped her legitimize her rule in Cairo by demonstrating her charity to the people as an ideal ruler and a good Muslim. Although that mosque does not survive today, the mihrab and the inscriptions inside the tomb chamber also emphasize her piety (more on that in later paragraphs). The fact that this was once a complex, which included her mausoleum, means that it was clearly an illustration of power and authority amongst the people living in Cairo. Hence, the mausoleum holds political and religious significance in al-Durr's legacy for being the sultana of Egypt.

    The mausoleum is made out of brick because it was the most convenient and easily accessible building material in Egypt at the time, as stated in Archnet.org. The exterior, consisting of a few pieces of stucco work for the facade, is almost entirely plain because of the extensive use of brick. The facade and side panels on the main entrance show the same motif that is noticeable around the mihrab on the inside.

(Figure 8) A closer look at the mausoleum, facing the main entrance.

One feature that belongs to the mausoleum is the keel-shaped dome, a common feature in Fatimid and Ayyubid tombs (illustrating continuity in architectural practices during the Mamluk period in this particular region of the Islamic world). Most notably, the mausoleum's keel-shaped dome has an interior octagonal base with eight keel-shaped windows along the base to provide light for the interior of the tomb chamber. The use of the keel-shaped dome with windows of the same shape along the base is a practice that goes way back to the Fatimid period (Shoukry, 14). This practice was refined by the Ayyubids and the Mamluks to make it a feature in Egyptian architecture from then on (particularly with the construction of tombs). As for the interior of the dome, the use of keel-shaped arches and windows during the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods would also influence the design of the squinches used for the zone of smooth transition between the mausoleum's squared room and circular dome. In this mausoleum, in particular, there are two levels of keel-shaped squinches and windows in the entire zone of transition.

(Figure 9) This keel-shape design was applied to the dome, windows, and interior squinches of the mausoleum.

(Figure 10) A closer look into the interior of the mausoleum, marking the keel-shaped windows and squinches along the zone of transition.

    When entering the tomb chamber from either one of the three entrances, perhaps the most noticeable architectural element that is common across many buildings in the Islamic world is the mihrab (the niche along the qibla wall that is used to focus one's direction towards Mecca during prayer). The mausoleum has a large and highly decorated mihrab inside the tomb chamber, which carries much religious significance as it does politically. As a matter of fact, the mihrab, in the form of a glass and gold mosaic, is the most decorated part of the entire mausoleum itself. Interestingly, it serves as a reference point to two things. It "depicts an elegant tree in precious glass tiles, surrounded by small shrubs across a backdrop of gold tesserae; mother-of-pearl inlay depicts sprouting fruit along tree branches, literally rendering a tree of pearls" (Wolf, 203). This is in fact a direct reference to the name of the sultana, Shajar al-Durr, which actually means tree of pearls. Such a depiction draws a clear connection between the mausoleum and the patron. As was the case of the implementation of a garden at the site of the mausoleum that no longer survives today, this mosaic on the mihrab is also a reference to paradise (as it is described in the Qur'an), which was a common theme throughout many structures in the Islamic world. References to paradise are also seen with similar mosaics located inside the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and also inside the Great Mosque of Damascus. Gardens, which referenced paradise, were also implemented in sites like the Alhambra in Spain and the Taj Mahal in India. The functional and iconic use of the mihrab also serves as a way for al-Durr to show her piety. In terms of political significance, the fact that the mihrab contains a religious-themed mosaic that also references the name of the sultana meant that the visitor prayed while paying homage to Shajar al-Durr, marking a unique case in power assertion on behalf of the female ruler. Although glass mosaics were common in Mamluk architecture in Cairo, the inclusion of a mosaic being placed on a mihrab that referenced both paradise and Shajar al-Durr herself presents a unique case in architectural and artistic patronage in Egypt and the Islamic world.

(Figure 11) The mihrab located inside the mausoleum.

(Figure 12) A closer look into the mihrab's mosaic.

In addition, two large parallel inscription bands encircle the entire tomb and pass through the mihrab along the qibla wall. They depart from traditional rules of patronage by including the name of the ruler, who was a woman in this case. While someone usually read these types of inscriptions and referenced the typical male ruler in the tomb, someone who visited Shajar al-Durr's tomb would now glorify the rule of a sultana. "It is commonly known that inscriptions provide an important means of communication in Islamic art and that images and animals are avoided altogether in Muslim religious settings such as mosques and tombs"(Ruggles, 71).

    Last but not least, the location of the mausoleum was also very crucial. Its placement near the tombs of Muslim female saints helped the mausoleum become another pilgrimage site in the city of Cairo. It is known that these particular saints (Sayyida Atika and Sayyida Ruqayya) claimed lineage to the Prophet Muhammad and Ali. Placing the mausoleum near these other tombs not only reinforced al-Durr's nobility and piety as a woman but it was believed that this proximity would bring blessings to the mausoleum and al-Durr who is buried (Wolf, 202-203).

    Shajar al-Durr's trend-setting in Egyptian architecture with her mausoleum helped to foster a style that would become distinctly Egyptian. She portrayed her power by way of the artworks she commissioned. These pieces she commissioned have become a part of the Egyptian artistic style. Her mausoleum demonstrated her ability to exercise authority in a way no other woman did at the time, and in a way that most other rulers could not. Her mausoleum has become a lasting symbol of her impact on history and culture throughout the ages.

Becoming an Art Detective

    Saints Peter and Paul Catholic Church located in the city of Wilmington (Los Angeles, California) contains architectural elements that were studied in this class regarding Islamic art and architecture. These relatable elements include the church's bell tower, its use of arches and pillars, and its overall interior design.

(Figure 13) Saints Peter and Paul Catholic Church in Wilmington, CA.

    The church's bell tower is perhaps the most noticeable element of the entire site, both from a close and even far distance. As a matter of fact, the bell tower stands out so much that it can clearly be seen from a few miles away. To be specific, the bell tower can actually be seen all the way from the eastern end of 266th St. in Harbor City, which is a specific point on the hill of the Harbor Pines area where much of the surrounding areas can be seen eastward including all of Wilmington. Due to current limitations in technology, the following image is a point on Anaheim St. where the bell tower is visible from a good distance on Google Maps:

(Figure 14) A view from Anaheim St. where the church's bell tower is visibly indicated with a red circle on the image.

(Figure 15) The blue point on the bottom left corner indicates the farthest point where the church's bell tower is clearly visible. The yellow point nearby indicates where the previous image, or Figure 14, was taken. The church is indicated with the red point on the right of the map.

The church's bell tower takes a similar nature and function as the typical minaret that is placed on the sites of mosques where Muslims pray. The bell tower is indeed the tallest structure at the site. The bells inside will also ring for occasions that usually occur at a catholic church, such as weddings and the start/end of communal services and daily prayer. This is similar to the typical Muslim minaret, which is also a tall, slender tower in a congregational mosque from which a muezzin, or crier, calls all Muslims for prayer five times a day (one of the five pillars of Islam). A minaret may also stand out from the rest of the mosque due to its great height unless the patron intends on making other architectural elements stand out such as a large dome. While a church's bell tower and a mosque's minaret are placed in different religious settings, they are both crucial in the roles that they play at the sites in which they are placed. Furthermore, a bell tower and a minaret have essentially become a staple in Christian and Muslim architecture respectively.

    The church also has arches near its entrance that lead into a small courtyard on the right side of the prayer hall. The arches are also supported by a series of pillars. The use of arches and pillars was one concept that was also studied in the class. For instance, the combination of arches and pillars was also applied in the former Congregational Mosque in Cordoba, Spain, which was constructed by the Umayyads. Although the design of the arches differs between these two sites, the use of arches and pillars is common ground between Christian and Muslim architecture.

(Figure 16) The interior (prayer hall) of the church.

    Last but not least, the overall interior design of the church follows a hypostyle design, another major concept that was studied in class. Hypostyle refers to an architectural design where a certain space or a hall is surrounded by pillars. The use of hypostyle is very common across Islamic architecture. In this particular case, the prayer hall, based on the typical Christian basilica plan, is closely surrounded by a combination of pillars and arches on both sides. Not many Christian churches have this kind of interior design where both pillars and arches are implemented, making this church in Wilmington a unique case.

Works Cited

Duncan, David J. “Scholarly Views of Shajarat al-Durr: A Need for Consensus.” Arab Studies Quarterly 22, no. 1 (2000): 51-69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41858321. Accessed April 23, 2021, through Google Scholar and JSTOR.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. “Visible and Invisible Bodies: The Architectural Patronage of Shajar Al-Durr.” Muqarnas 32, no. 1 (2015): 63-78. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44657312. Accessed April 23, 2021, through Google Scholar and JSTOR.

Shoukry, Farah. The Conservation History of the Mausoleum of Shajarat al-Durr. 2016. American University in Cairo, Master's Thesis. AUC Knowledge Fountain.

Wolf, Olivia M. Caroline. “‘The Pen Has Extolled Her Virtues’: Gender and Power within the Visual Legacy of Shajar al-Durr in Cairo,” in Calligraphy and Architecture in the Muslim World, ed. Mohammad Gharipour and Irvin Cemil Schick (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), 199-216. Accessed April 23, 2021, through Google Scholar.

http://www.archnet.org/timelines/48/period/Ayyubid/year/1176

http://www.archnet.org/timelines/48/period/Mamluk/year/1261

https://www.arce.org/resource/sultana-pearls-preserving-dome-honors-historic-female-ruler